How Does Makeup Affect Self Image How Does Makeup Affect Self Image

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Peer-reviewed

Research Article

The contrasting effects of torso image and self-esteem in the makeup usage

• Anthonieta Looman Mafra,
• Caio Due south. A. Silva,
• Marco A. C. Varella,
• Jaroslava V. Valentova

x

• Published: March 25, 2022
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265197

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Abstract

Women wearing makeup are perceived by others as more than attractive, competent, dominant, and more socially prestigious. Individuals differ in how much and how ofttimes they use makeup. Some studies show that women with lower self-esteem use more makeup, probably to hide imperfections. Notwithstanding, women with higher self-esteem can likewise utilise makeup to attract attending. This study verified whether social and full general self-esteem and body image are associated with makeup usage in Brazilian women. We collected information from i,483 women (M _age = 31.08; SD = 11.xv) about body image (advent orientation and advent evaluation), social cocky-esteem, general self-esteem, and makeup usage (frequency of makeup usage, time spent applying makeup per twenty-four hour period, and coin spent on makeup per month). Appearance orientation positively predicted frequency of makeup usage, time spent applying makeup, and money spent on makeup, whereas appearance evaluation inversely predicted coin spent on makeup per month. Social cocky-esteem and full general cocky-esteem also positively predicted coin spent on makeup, simply in different directions. The results suggest that the significance given to appearance and social interactions are importantly associated with makeup usage in women.

Citation: Mafra AL, Silva CSA, Varella MAC, Valentova JV (2022) The contrasting effects of body image and self-esteem in the makeup usage. PLoS ONE 17(three): e0265197. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265197

Editor: Piotr Sorokowski, University of Wroclaw, POLAND

Received: July 22, 2021; Accepted: February 26, 2022; Published: March 25, 2022

Copyright: © 2022 Mafra et al. This is an open admission commodity distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original writer and source are credited.

Data Availability: Data used to this newspaper tin be constitute past accessing the following link: https://osf.io/d2z7e/ (DOI:10.17605/OSF.IO/D2Z7E).

Funding: AM was supported by the FAPESP (Fundação de amparo à pesquisa do estado de são paulo, Grant number: 2018/16370-five), CS was supported by CNPq (Conselho nacional de desenvolvimento científico eastward tecnológico, Grant number 143811/2019-iii), MV was supported by the CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, Grant number 33002010037P0—MEC/CAPES).

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests be.

Introduction

Surveys with American women showed that 78% spent 1 hour per day on their appearance (e.g., hair treatments, dressing up, and makeup). Taking on average 55 minutes of women'due south day, pilus and makeup seemed to need more fourth dimension invested than other appearance related behaviors. [1] American women did non but spend time on active advent enhancing behaviors, only between the most watched categories past women on YouTube, the height two are advent related [1]. Another study showed that American women spent, on average, ten minutes on makeup in the morning and 85% tended to apply at to the lowest degree 16 products on their faces before leaving home. The results also concluded that New York women spent around 300,000 U.s.a. dollars during their lifetime on facial cosmetics [two]. These examples illustrate the importance American women attribute to physical advent and self-care [eastward.thou., 3].

Women'southward attractiveness is an important factor in their lives, affecting how they experience nearly themselves. Several studies found a positive human relationship between attractiveness and self-esteem in women [e.chiliad., 4, five]. Cash et al. [6] establish that physical appearance is positively correlated with appearance satisfaction, and Grilo et al. [vii] found a positive relation betwixt appearance evaluation and general self-esteem. However, these studies have focused on full general self-esteem.

Whereas general self-esteem reflects how a person feels virtually themselves and their value in comparison to others [8], social self-esteem is how individuals feel nearly themselves during social interactions with others, and how those interactions affect their social value [ix]. In this way, social self-esteem is more affected by social interactions than general self-esteem. Social cocky-esteem is positively linked to utilize of social network sites [10, xi] whereas full general cocky-esteem appears to be inversely proportional to social network sites [12, xiii], particularly in women [fourteen]. Vogel and colleagues [xv] institute that social comparing negatively affected general self-esteem negatively. Thus, the increment in digital media usage increased the pressure level to look as good as possible because people were increasingly exposed to images and videos of very skillful looking individuals [sixteen]. On the other paw, Steinsbekk and colleagues [14] found that cocky-oriented social network sites use was not related to full general cocky-esteem. Therefore, social network sites might increase social cocky-esteem by promoting more social interactions.

Although appearance tin be manipulated for better or for worse [17], the well-nigh mutual management of appearance manipulation is appearance enhancement rather than worsening. Appearance enhancement is considered to be a self-promotion strategy in which one may capture more attention from others [18]. To enhance their attractiveness and to await ameliorate than same sexual activity peers, women in Western societies use various tactics, such as high heels [e.g., nineteen], cosmetic surgeries [east.g., 20], and/or makeup [eastward.yard., 21]. Interestingly, Kelley [sixteen] interviewed 132 American college women and found that 37% of them reported they started using makeup considering they were unsatisfied with their appearance. In 6th form girls with negative self-esteem, using makeup increases pleasure pursuit [22]. Gentina et al. [23] found that makeup tin also serve every bit a ritual of transition to adulthood amid adolescents.

A recent experimental study compared women'south self-perception without makeup and with professionally applied makeup and showed that made upwards women considered themselves more than feminine, bonny, more than satisfied with appearance, and as having higher self-esteem [24]. Similarly, women wearing their usual facial cosmetics rated themselves as more attractive than when the cosmetics were removed [6]. A cross-sectional study further reported that women who rated themselves lower on concrete attractiveness used more makeup [25].

Although individual differences in physical facial attractiveness are larger than intra-private differences acquired by facial cosmetics [26], makeup is used to improve evaluation by others [6, 27] and may enhance prosocial feelings [25]. However, contrasting results were found regarding cocky-esteem and their relationship with makeup usage. Robertson and colleagues [25] establish that self-esteem is negatively related to cosmetic usage whereas Al-Samydai et al. [28] findings pointed to a positive association. Withal, the contrasting results may be due to the characteristics of the samples: the first report was conducted on xxx British undergraduate women and the latter on 606 Jordanian women. Studies investigating the association betwixt cocky-esteem and makeup usage in different sociocultural settings are needed.

There are several ways to measure appearance, including perception of physical attractiveness (east.1000., facial or torso attractiveness rated past others), morphological measures (e.k., muscularity, body shape), and body image (e.chiliad., individuals' attitude toward appearance). Torso epitome is broadly used to measure advent because it is the reflection of individual satisfaction with their physical advent and the importance placed on e'er looking good [28]. Whereas appearance orientation measures the importance attributed to their ain appearance, such as how important they recall it is to ever wait good, advent evaluation measures how attractive the individual considers themselves, how satisfied they are with their own body [28]. Thus, body image measures self-perception of their attractiveness and also the pressure they put on themselves to always await good. Researchers relating makeup and body image tend to arroyo only the appearance evaluation factor, leaving out advent orientation [e.g. 6, 29], despite several studies showing the impact social pressure exerts on individuals' cocky-perception [seven], self-esteem [10], and fifty-fifty well-being [xi].

Thus, our goal was to test if makeup usage in women (frequency of makeup usage, money spent on makeup, and time spent applying makeup per day) is predicted by full general and social self-esteems, and body epitome (self-perceived attractiveness and importance one gives to tidiness). Despite some contrasting findings, Al-Samydai et al. [28] pointed out that makeup enhances women'south social interactions and performance and Robertson et al. [25] establish a positive relationship betwixt makeup usage and cocky-presentation and cocky-consciousness. Therefore, nosotros expected that makeup usage would be predicted by social-related aspects (appearance orientation and social self-esteem) rather than by advent evaluation and general self-esteem.

Materials and methods

Participants

A total of 1,651 Brazilian women took part in the enquiry. For the present study, 1,483 women between 18 and 75 years old (Yard _{historic period} = 31.08; SD = 11.15) entered in the concluding analyses. All the 168 participants younger than 18 years had their information excluded. This sample was comprised 32.2% of women with graduate degrees, 26.1% undergraduate students, 20.6% women with completed undergraduate degrees, ten.0% women with secondary educational activity, 9.iii% graduate students, and ane.7% with no education or unfinished secondary education. Most of the women considered themselves White (73.0%), 17.eight% indicated mixed ethnicity (pardo), four.8% identified every bit Black, 2.8% as Asian, and 1.6% indicated "Other" ethnicity.

About family income, most of the participants (27.4%) declared from approximately US$ 499 to 998 (substitution rate of the solar day December 28 2021), xix.4% declared from U.s.$ 998 to 1,496, 15.4% declared from US$ 166 to 498, 15% declared more than than US$ two,494, eleven.8% declared from US$ one,497 to i,995, viii% from US$ i,996 to 2,493, and 3.i% up to US$ 165. The average Brazilian income per capita was United states$ 313 in 2018 (when most of the data was nerveless) [30]. Most participants were from Southeast Brazil.

Instruments

Participants completed a Qualtrics online questionnaire (Qualtrics, Provo, UT), containing sociodemographic questions, Cosmetics Apply Inventory and boosted questions, Social self-esteem questionnaire, General cocky-esteem questionnaire, and Body image calibration.

Sociodemographic questions.

This section included questions such as age, sex, gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity, relationship condition, current pregnancy, and current socioeconomic condition (educational level and family income).

Cosmetics use inventory [31].

We used a office of an adjusted version of the inventory [32] in which participants charge per unit on a seven-point-scale the frequency they use from "never" to "always": ane. base of operations, concealer, and/or pulverization; 2. mascara; 3. eyeliner or eye pencil; 4. shade; and 5. lipstick and/or gloss. Higher averaged scores correspond to higher levels of facial corrective apply. We used the version translated (and dorsum translated) into Brazilian Portuguese. All the variables were positively associated (i.e., women who use more ane type of makeup tend to use the other types of makeup more oft, also) (See S1 Table in S1 File).

Further, participants responded about their monthly expenses with makeup using the following options (in our survey in Brazilian Reals): USD 0, up to USD 2.fifty, USD ii.50–6, USD vi–10, USD ten–15, USD xv–20, USD 20–25, USD 25–l, more USD 50. Fourth dimension spent applying makeup per day was responded using the following options: less than v minutes, 5–10 minutes, 10–twenty minutes, 20–xxx minutes, more than 30 minutes.

Social self-esteem questionnaire [ix].

This is a 30-detail instrument composed of phrases describing 1's ability to bargain with different social situations. The participant answers how accurately each sentence describes what her behavior or feelings would exist in each situation on a six-betoken Likert calibration. The higher the score, the greater the participant's ease in dealing with social situations (east.chiliad., "I make friends easily"). We used the version translated (and back translated) into Brazilian Portuguese (Cronbach α = 0.95).

General self-esteem questionnaire [8].

This is a 10-particular instrument with a four-point Likert response scale. It contains affirmations about individuals' feelings and beliefs about themselves (due east.m., "On the whole, I am satisfied with myself"). Nosotros used the version translated and adapted into Portuguese and validated for the Brazilian population (Cronbach α = 0.91) [33].

Trunk image scale [28].

This is an attitudinal body image musical instrument equanimous of 2 subscales measuring appearance evaluation and appearance orientation with a five-indicate Likert response scale. The subscales are composed of 17 statements, xi of them related to appearance orientation (e.m. "It is important that I always look proficient") and half dozen related to appearance evaluation (e.thou. "I like my looks just the way they are"). We used the version translated (and back translated) into Brazilian Portuguese (Cronbach α = 0.82).

Process

Later on written ethical approval past the local Institutional Review Board of Anhembi Morumbi University (nr. 2.960.684), participants were recruited through social media and institutional e-mails. Thus, it was a sample based on convenience, and does not stand for the Brazilian population. Participants completed informed consent and then responded to anonymous online questionnaires. Inclusion criteria were to have access to the Cyberspace and to be a Brazilian woman 18 years old or older. Participants took xxx minutes on average to consummate the survey.

Information analyses

First, using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 21 (IBM Corp., Armonk, N.Y., United states of america), we checked data normality (See S2 Table in S1 File). Most data were not commonly distributed, and we thus conducted exploratory non-parametric correlations among makeup usage, social and general self-esteems, and body image in society to verify correlations among the contained variables and test for multicollinearity. The contained variables were weakly and moderately associated, with depression risk of multicollinearity (VIF ranged from one.002 to 2.002).

Second, to test for a possible effect on makeup usage, social and general cocky-esteems, and body image entered as independent variables into categorical regressions (CATREG). Nosotros chose to use this analysis considering information technology uses an optimal scaling feature that solves the problem of lack of linearity of the scales and information technology calculates an optimal regression equation and the effect of each contained variable (advent orientation, appearance evaluation, general cocky-esteem, and social cocky-esteem) on the dependent variables (frequency of makeup usage, money spent on makeup, and time spent doing makeup per day). All statistical tests were performed with the significance level indicated at .05.

Results

Makeup usage descriptives

Almost participants use makeup half of the time (26.2%) or sometimes (24.9%) and 44.nine% spend less than v minutes applying makeup per day. Also, 19.6% spent nothing and 19.6% spent up to USD 2.50 on makeup per month. Come across S3 to S5 Tables in S1 File for detailed information.

Correlations between makeup usage and social and full general self-esteem, and trunk image attitudes

Kendall correlation indicated that coin spent on makeup per calendar month, time spent applying makeup per day, and frequency of makeup usage are moderately and positively correlated (Run across Table 1). Further, these 3 measures of makeup usage are moderately and positively correlated to appearance orientation. Money spent on makeup per month and frequency of makeup usage are weakly and positively related to social cocky-esteem. Frequency of makeup usage likewise presented a positive and weak correlation with full general self-esteem. Social self-esteem was moderately and positively correlated with general self-esteem, weakly and positively associated with advent evaluation and advent orientation. General self-esteem was moderately and positively associated with advent evaluation.

The sociodemographic variables (age, family unit income, and educational level) were weakly and positively associated with money spent on makeup, frequency of makeup usage, general self-esteem, social self-esteem, and appearance evaluation. There were no associations among the sociodemographic variables and time spent on makeup and appearance orientation.

The effect of general and social self-esteems and body image on makeup usage

To test for a possible result of social and personal self-esteems, and body image on makeup usage, we conducted three chiselled regression models, with money spent on makeup per month, time spent applying makeup per day, and frequency of makeup usage as dependent variables. Nosotros besides included the sociodemographic variables age, family unit income, and educational level in the analyses in society to control the variability of our sample (Tabular array 2).

But appearance orientation and age predicted fourth dimension spent applying makeup per twenty-four hour period and frequency of makeup usage, whereas all variables except educational level predicted money spent on makeup.

Discussion

The aim of the report was to verify if general and social self-esteems and body prototype (i.e., appearance orientation and appearance evaluation) were associated with makeup usage amid Brazilian women. Altogether, our findings suggested that women who feel comfortable with their advent and take college general self-esteem spent less money on makeup whereas women with higher social self-esteem spent more money on makeup; and women who allocated more than importance to the way they looked not but spent more coin on makeup but spent more time applying makeup and using makeup more frequently.

Advent orientation was a significant predictor of makeup usage. Thus, women who give more than importance to their appearance and are ever neat, use makeup more ofttimes, spend more time applying makeup, and spend more than money on makeup. Similarly, Robertson et al. [25] constitute a positive relationship between cosmetic usage and self-presentation. In women, appearance orientation is too linked to neuroticism and narcissism [34], eating disorders [35], and drive for muscularity in men [36]. Women frequently have their bodies objectified, i.eastward. treated like an object that exists to please others. Through self-objectification, they disconnect their bodies from their persons, and sometimes internalize this perspective and commencement evaluating and treating themselves as mere bodies [37], highlighting the visual cess. Women with higher levels of self-objectification would identify more attention to their advent and grooming instead of other aspects, such equally identity evolution. Therefore, advent orientation may be used equally a measure out of self-objectification [34]. A deeper investigation near appearance orientation and self-objectification should be conducted in gild to analyze if they are in fact measuring similar traits.

Further, when adolescents with positive body prototype were interviewed, they claimed their family and friends used to talk about their appearance, merely not about their bodies (i.e., they comment most their habiliment, pilus style, makeup, etc., but not nearly their physical traits, such as how fat they are [38]). Thus, someone's appearance orientation is more liable in commentaries than someone's body. It suggests that appearance orientation would be more than susceptible to social influences than appearance evaluation, and consequently, would exist positively related to appearance modifications, including makeup usage. This would too explicate why accepting oneself is negatively related to purchasing makeup.

Corroborating Frisén and Holmqvist'due south [38] results, we found that women with college appearance evaluation, i.due east. women who were more satisfied with their appearance, tended to spend less money on makeup. Our report supported findings of Robertson and colleagues [25] who reported an inverse association betwixt cosmetic usage and cocky-rated concrete appearance. For these individuals, makeup usage may non be related to satisfaction with their torso, and then information technology does not make them experience physically more attractive. Indeed, cosmetics have a smaller impact on individuals college in attractiveness than on less bonny individuals [26].

Frederick and Reynolds [39] presented the cerebral behavioral model in which makeup would be an appearance fixing strategy, existence a response to emotions and thoughts related to body epitome. That is, factors experienced throughout an individual's life influenced one'due south torso image past associating their advent schema. Future experiences can activate this model, influencing how this new information is processed. The thoughts and emotions related to one'due south schema will respond past adjusting self-regulatory processes. Makeup usage, thus, would be a fashion to improve body prototype through fixing imperfections in people who are non satisfied with their advent (appearance schema) and are concerned about information technology.

Additionally, Mafra et al. [40] conducted a study on Brazilian men and women with depression socioeconomic status and found that spending more money on cosmetics did not make women feel better about themselves (e.g., more attractive). According to a review by Tylka and Wood-Barcalow [41], positive torso image is the credence of i'southward ain body, feeling happy and complete even knowing its imperfections and that it is not consistent with idealized images. Nevertheless, others' perceptions too may influence individuals' positive trunk image [39] also as the type of watched advertizing may influence women'due south cocky-esteem, trunk image, and mood [42].

Social self-esteem is a positive predictor of money spent on makeup per calendar month. Although Robertson et al. [25] found a negative clan between cosmetic usage and social confidence, adolescent girls reported to use makeup considering they wanted to feel admired by the public [23], suggesting that makeup functions better social impressions. In a recent review, Davis and Arnocky [18] argued that makeup may be used every bit a strategy to enhance social status. In fact, too bringing advantages in attracting mates and competing with rivals [21], makeup usage was positively associated with social interaction and performance [43], with women who utilize makeup beingness perceived equally more competent [44], more dominant, and higher in social prestige [45]. As social interactions are important for people with loftier social cocky-esteem levels, makeup may exist a tool to increase confidence in interpersonal relationships. On the other hand, women who feel practiced about themselves (i.e., with loftier general self-esteem) tended to spend less money on makeup usage. This result also corroborated Robertson et al. [25], in which a negative correlation between makeup usage and general cocky-esteem was constitute.

According to a recent study, makeup use too affects other women. Later being exposed to pictures of same-sex peers wearing makeup, Australian undergraduate women reported willingness to alter their appearance, for instance, hair, skin [29]. Peradventure, women who give more importance to physical advent invest more money too on other beauty products, non just makeup. Hereafter inquiry investigating how other products that tin can raise women's advent relate to advent orientation and ideal stereotypes of beauty could make a great contribution to the field.

Overall, our study suggested that women with greater self-esteem associated with social interactions would attribute higher importance to their advent, resulting in more than makeup usage. Makeup usage may enhance women'south confidence to deal with social situations. Notwithstanding, our study was cross-sectional, thus an experimental report could complement our arroyo past testing if social-related aspects influence the consumption of makeup more than intrinsic-related aspects. Another important signal to highlight is that the social influence on makeup usage is rather speculative since nosotros accept not directly asked the participants about the possible affect of the media and social networks on their body image. Finally, our sample was composed past a majority of highly educated Caucasian women of medium to high family incomes, which does not fully represent the Brazilian population (mostly equanimous by Black and mixed ethnicities in depression educational levels and depression family income earnings). A report trying to achieve more women outside the university may ameliorate correspond the Brazilian population.

Supporting information

Acknowledgments

Nosotros are grateful for English language proofreading and helpful suggestions made by Prof. Daniel J. Kruger. We are also grateful to the participants and researchers who donated their time for this to go a reality.

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Source: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0265197

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